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1 From the Research Service, Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio; 2 Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio; 3 Department of Physiology and 4 Biotechnology Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin; the 5 Department of Life Science and 6 National Creative Research Initiative Center for Calcium and Learning, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, Republic of Korea; 7 Synaptic Biochemistry Group, Division of Neuroscience, The John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia; the 8 Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; and the 9 Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and 10 Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky.
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Abstract |
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1F subunit of voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCCs) have been shown to cause incomplete congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB2). The purpose of this study was to dentify which of the four ß subunits of VDCCs participates in the formation of this channel at the photoreceptor synapse and to determine how its absence affects visual processing.
METHODS. Mice without each of the four known ß subunits of VDCCs were generated by gene targeting and transgenic rescue (CNS-ß1, -ß2) or by gene targeting alone (ß3) or were obtained from a commercial provider (ß4). Retinal function and visual sensitivity were examined by electroretinography and an active avoidance behavioral test, respectively. The structure of the retina and expression of the 1F subunit were examined at the light microscopic level and by immunohistochemistry.
RESULTS. Under dark-adapted conditions, CNS-ß2–null mice had a normal ERG a-wave, but did not have a normal b-wave. In addition, these mice showed decreased sensitivity to light. Both the a- and b-waves appear normal in the CNS-ß1–, ß3-, and ß4-null mice. Histologic analyses of all four mouse lines indicated that only the CNS-ß2–null mice had altered retinal morphology. Eyes of these mice had a thinner outer plexiform layer (OPL) than eyes of control animals. In addition, the labeling pattern of the 1F subunit in the OPL was altered in CNS-ß2–null mice.
CONCLUSIONS. The normal distribution of the 1F subunit of the VDCCs in the OPL is dependent on the expression of the ß2 subunit. The expression of both of these subunits is required for normal maintenance and/or formation of the OPL and synaptic transmission.
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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1F subunit of VDCCs are responsible for an X-linked disorder, incomplete congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB2) in humans.9
10
More recently, Morgans and colleagues11
12
13
have shown that the 1F subunit is localized to the OPL in rat and chicken.
Neuronal VDCCs are heteromultimers, composed of 1, 2/
, and ß-subunits and possibly a neuronal homologue of the skeletal 
subunit.14
To date, 10 1-, 4 ß-, 3 2/-, and 8 -subunit15
genes have been identified (for review see Ref. 16
). In all VDCCs the 1 subunit forms the channel pore, which contains the voltage sensor and the drug-binding site used to define the channel type. The 2/ and ß subunits are important in determining channel kinetics, and the ß subunits are necessary for expression of the channel.17
Adult skeletal muscle expresses a single 1 subunit (1S) paired with a ß1, 2/, and 1 subunit. Inactivation of the ß1 subunit by gene targeting results in the loss of the 1S subunit and absence of contraction.17
The 1 subunit has been shown to modify channel kinetics of skeletal muscle L-type VDCCs,18
19
but its role in the central nervous system (CNS) is not well defined. In many neurons in the CNS, multiple 1 and ß subunits are expressed, and the absence of a single ß subunit appears to be less deleterious than the loss of the ß1 subunit in skeletal muscle. For example lethargic mice have no ß4 subunit20
; however, there is no quantitative loss of any specific VDCC type.21
22
Instead, the remaining ß subunits are reshuffled, resulting in 1-subunit pairings with the remaining ß1–3 subunits.21
Certain aspects of channel function are altered, however, because lethargic mice have an observable phenotype.23
To begin to identify the structural makeup of VDCCs at the photoreceptor ribbon synapse, we examined the role of the ß subunits in mouse visual function. We describe electrophysiological, anatomic, and behavioral studies in mice with no expression of the ß2 subunit in the CNS. We show that the absence of the ß2 subunit in the retina results in an abnormal distribution of the 1F subunit in the retina, which has profound effects on visual function and the ERG that are not seen in mice without the other ß subunits. These results indicate that normal function of the retinal VDCCs at the photoreceptor-to-bipolar cell synapse is highly dependent on the presence of the ß2 subunit and that mice without this subunit provide an animal model for CSNB2.
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Methods |
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To rescue the ß2-null mice, we created a transgenic mouse line expressing the rat ß2 subunit in cardiac muscle of FVB mice. This was achieved using a cardiac-specific promoter, the -myosin heavy chain (MyHC),25
to express a T7-tagged rat ß2 cDNA (Fig. 1Av)
. Twelve transgenic founder lines were obtained, and three independent lines that showed expression of the transgene in heart tissue were crossed to the ß2-knockout mice. All three lines were able to rescue the lethal ß2-null phenotype, and one transgenic line was used to rescue the ß2-null phenotype in this study. This line showed no detectable expression of the ß2 subunit in the retina (Fig. 1C)
. Mice homozygous for the targeted ß2 allele and carrying the T7-tagged rat ß2 transgene are fertile, have no obvious abnormalities, and are referred to as CNS-ß2–null mice.
CNS-ß1– and -ß2–null mice are a mixture of three genetic backgrounds: 129/Sv from the ES cells used for gene targeting, C57BL/6J from the blastocysts into which the ES cells were injected, and FVB used to produce the transgenic lines. To avoid differences due to strain effects, we used littermate control mice whenever possible. Because the FVB strain carries the rd allele, we screened all mice to ensure that none of the mice used in these experiments was heterozygous or homozygous for the rd allele.
Production of the ß3-null mice (129/sv background) has been described elsewhere.26 The ß4-null mice (B6EiC3H-a/A-Cacnb4lh or lethargic) were obtained from Jackson Laboratories (Bar Harbor, ME). Figure 1C confirms that the ß3 and ß4 subunits were absent in the ß3- and ß4-null lines, as previously reported.20 26 The genotype of the CNS-ß1 and -ß2 mice was determined using PCR assays specific for the deleted alleles and transgenes. Primers used were: ß1 deleted allele: P1 (5'-ACAATAGCAGGCATGCTGGGGATG-3') and P2, (5'-ACACCCCCTGCCAGTGGTAAGAG-3'); ß1 normal allele, P2 and P3 (ATGGATGGTAGATGGGGGGTATGGG-3'); T7ß1 transgene, P4 (5'-GAATTCATGTCCCGGGGCCCTTACCC-3') and P5 (5'-CTGCCATCAAACCGATGCT-3'); ß2 deleted allele, P6 (5'-GGTTCGGCAGACTCCTACACCAGCC-3') and P7; ß2 normal allele, P1 and P6; T7ß2 transgene, P10 (5'-TCTGCATCTAAGCCAGTAGCT-3') and P11 (5'-GGTTCGGCAGACTCCTACACCAGCC-3'). PCR reactions contained: 1x Taq polymerase buffer and enhancer, 1 U Taq polymerase (Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany), 2 µM of each primer, 0.2 mM dNTPs, and 25 to 50 ng DNA in a final volume of 25 µL. Cycling conditions were determined empirically, but in general were: 2 minutes at 94°C, followed by 30 cycles of 1 minute at 94°C, 1 minute at the annealing temperature, and 2 minutes at 72°C, followed by a final incubation for 10 minutes at 72°C. Amplified samples were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis.
Western Blot Analysis
Mice were killed by anesthetic overdose and the eyes removed. The retinas were dissected and immediately homogenized in 100 µL of solution containing 2 mM HEPES (pH 7.4), 1 mM EGTA, 2 µg/mL leupeptin, and 2 µg/mL aprotinin. Homogenates (12–15 µg protein) were suspended in sample buffer and reducing agent and proteins separated on 4% to 12% Bis-Tricine polyacrylamide gels (NuPage; Novex/Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) in 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid (MOPS) SDS running buffer, as recommended by the manufacturer. Proteins were transferred to nitrocellulose membranes, and the membranes were blocked using 5% nonfat milk in Tris-buffered saline (TBS; 20 mM Tris-HCl [pH 7.4] and 137 mM NaCl). Primary antibodies were diluted in TBST (TBS and 0.3% Tween 20) including 2% BSA, and incubated with the membranes overnight at 4°C. After membranes were washed in TBST (three times for 15 minutes each), the appropriate horseradish peroxidase (HRP) secondary antibody was diluted in TBST plus 5% nonfat milk and incubated at room temperature for 1 hour. Membranes were washed three times with TBST and developed with an enhanced chemiluminescence kit (Supersignal ECL; Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Piscataway, NJ). Affinity-purified primary antibodies to ß1b (rabbit 142), ß2 (rabbit 143), ß3 (sheep 49), and ß4 (rabbit 145), were a generous gift from Kevin Campbell. The images were captured on x-ray film and scanned into a computer with image-analysis software (Photoshop; Adobe, San Diego, CA).
Electroretinography
Animals 1 to 6 months of age were anesthetized with ketamine (80 mg/kg) and xylazine (16 mg/kg) and placed on a heating pad. Pupils were dilated with 1% tropicamide and 2.5% phenylephrine. Electroretinograms (ERGs) were recorded using a wire-loop recording electrode, which made contact with the corneal surface through a thin layer of 2% methylcellulose. Two platinum needle electrodes used for reference and ground were placed in the cheek and tail, respectively. Signals were band-pass amplified (1–1000 or 0.01–1000 Hz), digitized at 2500 Hz, and averaged using a signal-averaging system (Compact Four; Nicolet, Madison, WI).
To distinguish between rod and cone activity, different stimulus and recording conditions were used.27 28 To isolate rod photoreceptor function, animals were dark adapted for at least 2 hours before testing and strobe flashes ranging from -3.0 to 1.0 log sec · cd/m2 were presented in the dark within a ganzfeld (Nicolet). To isolate cone responses, a series of flash intensities was presented on a steady rod-desensitizing adapting field (1.3 log cd/m2). Stimulus calibrations were performed with a photometer (Model 550–1; EG&G, Salem, MA) and are expressed in photopic units.
Behavioral Analysis
Light sensitivity was evaluated in 2-month-old CNS-ß2–null and age-matched normal (C57BL/6J) mice, by using a two-way active avoidance paradigm in a shuttle box. Each training period began with a 3-minute acclimation period, and consisted of 100 trials. For each trial, the onset of a light flash on one side of the box preceded by 10 seconds the presentation of a mild foot shock (0.8 mA) on the same side of the cage. The length of time (20–35 seconds) the foot shock was activated was randomized, which also resulted in the randomization of the interflash interval. Animals could either avoid or escape the shock at any point during each trial by moving to the dark, or safe, side of the cage. Each experimental animal was trained for 8 to 12 consecutive days. After the animals had learned the visual task, neutral-density filters (Oriel, Stratford, CT) were used to reduce the intensity of the light cue.
Histology
Mice were killed at 3 to 9 months of age by anesthetic overdose, and eyes were removed and immersion fixed (2% glutaraldehyde) for either 1 to 3 hours for morphologic examination or for 10 minutes in 4% paraformaldehyde for immunohistochemical experiments. Eyecups fixed in glutaraldehyde were embedded in epoxy resin (Embed 812; EM Sciences, Fort Washington, PA). Vertical sections were cut at 0.5 µm using a diamond knife on an ultramicrotome (Reichert; Leica, Deerfield, IL) and stained with toluidine blue. Eyecups fixed in paraformaldehyde were cryoprotected by immersion in 10% sucrose in PBS, frozen embedded in optimal cutting temperature compound (OCT), and cut at 10 µm on a cryostat (Ernst Leitz, Rockleigh, NJ) at -20°C. Frozen sections were blocked by incubation for 30 minutes at room temperature in antibody incubation solution (AIS; 0.5% Triton X-100, 5% horse serum, 0.05% NaN3 in PBS). Sections were incubated overnight at room temperature in an antibody specific to the human 1F subunit.12
The sections were washed in PBS, incubated for 1 hour at room temperature in the secondary antibody (donkey anti-sheep IgG conjugated to CY3; carboxymethylindocyanine; Dianova, Hamburg, Germany) diluted 1:50 in AIS, washed in PBS, and coverslipped with mounting medium (Vectashield; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA). Primary antibodies were omitted from control sections. Photomicrographs were taken with a microscope (Leica) on tungsten film (Ektachrome EPY, 135-36; Eastman Kodak, Rochester, NY) with a fluorescence filter for CY3.
Retinal morphometry was analyzed in plastic-embedded sections that bisected the optic nerve. Measurements were made at an area approximately 1 mm from the optic nerve in three sections from each animal. Results from each animal and then for each group were averaged, and a Student’s t-test was used to compare averages from the ß2-null mice with each other mutant group. The investigator was masked to the origin of each section analyzed.
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Results |
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Synaptic Transmission between Photoreceptors and Bipolar Cells
To eliminate the possibility that any variation in ERG recordings was a function of the varied genetic background of the four lines of mice, littermate control animals were used in all experiments. In addition, the ERG data were compared with a database of responses from control mice collected in other studies.29
Figure 2A
shows a series of representative ERGs recorded under dark-adapted conditions to flash stimuli that cover a 4-log-unit range of intensity. Under these stimulus conditions, the responses represent the summed activity of predominantly rod-driven bipolar cells.30
31
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The dark-adapted ERGs from the CNS-ß2–null mice always included a low-amplitude–positive component. To better evaluate this feature, we used an identical protocol to record responses from nob (no b-wave) mice, which do not have the postreceptoral components of the dark-adapted ERG.27 The ERGs of nob mice are generated by hyperpolarization of rod photoreceptors and a subsequent sustained negativity (slow PIII) resulting from the spatial buffering of K+ by Müller cells.33 Figure 2D compares responses recorded from a CNS-ß2–null and a nob mouse at three flash intensities. At each stimulus intensity, it is clear that the CNS-ß2–null response included a late positive component that was missing in the nob ERG. This positive ERG component suggests that CNS-ß2–null mice retain a degree of visual transmission from rod photoreceptors to the inner retina.
Figure 3A presents representative light-adapted ERGs from the four groups of mutant mice. At all stimulus intensities, the mouse cone ERG is dominated by a positive-polarity b-wave.29 Distinct b-wave responses that increased in amplitude with increasing stimulus intensity were obtained from CNS-ß1–, ß3-, and ß4-null mice. In comparison, the cone ERGs of CNS-ß2–null mice were of much smaller amplitude and were negative in polarity. Cone ERG intensity–response functions in CNS-ß1–, ß3-, and ß4-null mice fell within the 95% confidence interval for control responses (Fig. 3B , dashed lines). In comparison, cone ERGs of CNS-ß2–null mice were markedly reduced in amplitude (Figs. 3A 3B) .
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Reduced Visual Sensitivity in CNS-ß2–Null Mice
Reductions in b-wave amplitude are often associated with marked losses of visual sensitivity,34
35
although near-normal visual thresholds can be associated with ERG b-wave reductions.36
37
To evaluate light sensitivity in the CNS-ß2–null mice, we used a two-way active avoidance paradigm with light as the conditioned stimulus. Figure 4
(left) shows that both control and CNS-ß2–null mice quickly learned to avoid the foot shock, each showing an increase in avoidance by the second day of training and an asymptotic level of more than 85% avoidance within 8 days of training. In addition, there was no difference in the time course over which control and CNS-ß2–null mice learned the task. To eliminate the possibility that these mice were using nonvisual cues to accomplish the task, mice with eyes enucleated were also trained under these conditions. These mice maintained a low level of performance throughout the eight-day training session. To provide additional confirmation that the performance of the control and CNS-ß2–null mice was light dependent, eyes of trained animals were enucleated and then the mice were retested. In these animals, performance fell to the levels observed in untrained animals or those in which eyes had been enucleated (data not shown).
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Retinal Structure in CNS-ß2–Null Mice
Reductions in the ERG b-wave can be associated with either progressive retinal degeneration,38
39
40
or a morphologically normal retina.27
41
42
Figure 5
presents representative cross sections from each CNS-ß mutant mouse. The overall structure and retinal layer thicknesses of the CNS-ß1– -, ß3-, and ß4-null mice were comparable to the same measures made in a group of normal mice in a previous study.29
The CNS-ß2–null retina was not substantially different from retinas in other mutant mice, in thickness of the cellular layers or the inner plexiform layer (IPL; Table 1
). However, the OPL appeared thinner and disorganized in the CNS-ß2 retina and was significantly thinner than in the other mutant mice (P < 0.05).
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1F Subunit in Photoreceptor Terminals in CNS-ß2–Null Mice1F subunit are responsible for CSNB2.9
10
Because the ERG data obtained from the CNS-ß2–null mice are similar in many respects to results obtained in patients with CSNB2,35
we examined with immunohistochemistry the distribution of the expression of the 1F subunit in the CNS-ß2–null mice. Figure 6
shows that in control mice the 1F subunit was present in both the OPL and IPL, similar to the labeling pattern found in the rat retina,12
but was absent in the OPL of CNS-ß2–null mice. The distribution of the 1F subunit also appeared to be diminished in the IPL of the CNS-ß2–null mice, although quantitative conformation of this conclusion is needed. These results indicate that the ß2 subunit is required for normal expression of the 1F subunit in the OPL.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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1F subunit of VDCCs have been identified in patients with CSNB2,9
10
43
implicating this subunit in the photoreceptor VDCCs. Patients with CSNB2 show a reduction in the dark-adapted ERG b-wave, although a low-amplitude, late, corneal positive response is retained under all stimulus conditions.35
In addition, the amplitude of the cone ERG is drastically reduced in patients with CSNB2. These electrophysiological changes are associated with a reduction in visual sensitivity.35
The identification of mutations in the 1F subunit in patients with CSNB2 indicates that this VDCC subunit is required for normal photoreceptor-to-bipolar cell synaptic transmission. In this study, elimination of the ß2 subunit in the retina of mice produced a phenotype that is similar in many respects to that seen in patients with CSNB2.35 The CNS-ß2–null mice had a normal ERG a-wave, indicating that function of the outer segments was grossly normal. In addition, the amplitude of the b-wave under both light- and dark-adapted conditions was greatly reduced. Further, the CNS-ß2–null mice were less sensitive to light.
That expression of the 1F subunit depends on the expression of the ß2 subunit is analogous to the impact on the 1S subunit when the ß1 subunit is inactivated.17
In adults, skeletal muscle expresses a single VDCC composed of 1S, 2/, ß1, and 1 subunits. The loss of the 1 subunits in both these cases results from a dependence on the ß subunit for normal surface expression of the channel (see Ref. 16
for review). The underlying mechanism is not clearly understood, but the 1/ß interaction in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) appears to mask an ER retention signal present on the 1 subunit.44
In contrast to these effects, studies of Schaffer collateral synapses in the hippocampus of ß4-null (lethargic) mice indicate that loss of the ß4 subunit has little effect on the two main VDCCs at this synapse.22
This indicates that, in contrast to skeletal muscle, other ß subunits are expressed in these neurons and consequently are able to form pairings with 1 subunits to produce functional channels. This process of alternate 1/ß subunit pairing has been referred to as subunit reshuffling.21
McEnery et al.45
showed that expression of the ß1b isoform was increased in several areas of the ß4-null mouse brain, which could explain the relatively mild effects of deleting this subunit. In ß3-null mice a significant decrease in the level of L- and N-type VDCCs was observed in sympathetic neurons in the superior cervical ganglion, indicating that the level of expression of the ß subunits may have been limiting.26
In light of these findings, the most likely explanation for the phenotype of the CNS-ß2–null mice is that the ß2 subunit is the predominant ß subunit in photoreceptors, and the expression level of any other ß subunit is insufficient to allow normal expression of the 1F subunit at the ribbon synapse. Alternatively, if other ß subunits are present, they are unable to pair with the 1F subunit. Although possible, the latter explanation is unlikely, because large numbers of in vitro studies have examined 1/ß subunit pairings, and almost all combinations tested to date are able to produce functional channels.16
Although the CNS-ß2–null mice have a dramatically decreased ERG b-wave, they retain some visual function. They exhibit a low-amplitude, late, corneal positive ERG component, and they have the ability to learn a visual task. Therefore, it is likely that some modulation of glutamate release is sensed by second-order neurons. Several explanations are possible. First, another ß subunit could form functional channels with 1F, or 1F subunits may be inserted in the membrane in the absence of any ß subunit. Both of these explanations seem unlikely, because we were unable to detect 1F in the OPL with immunohistochemistry. Second, there could be other 1 subunits present that normally form complexes with ß1, ß3, or ß4 subunits. In support of this hypothesis are the observations that 1C and 1D are expressed in the OPL and INL of the tree shrew retina,46
although neither subunit has been localized to the OPL in chicken retina.13
Perhaps these channels are involved in non–ribbon synapses in the OPL, which are able to support some visual function. The distribution of these subunits in the mouse retina is currently unknown, although 1D and 1C have been reported to be present in rat photoreceptors.6
47
Regardless of the origin of the signaling responsible for the small positive ERG component and the residual visual ability in the CNS-ß2–null animals, the present results and those obtained from studies of patients with CSNB2 indicate that the primary L-type VDCCs present in the photoreceptor terminal are composed of 1F and ß2 subunits and presumably one of the three 2/ subunits.
Unlike retinitis pigmentosa, CSNB1 and CSNB2 are not associated with retinal degeneration. Similarly, in CNS-ß2–null mice there was no evidence of photoreceptor degeneration. However, there was a significant thinning of the OPL in the CNS-ß2–null mice compared with control animals. Subsequent electron microscopic examination of the OPL indicates that CNS-ß2–null mice show a nearly complete absence of ribbon synapses.48 These data suggest that the channels that incorporate this subunit are critical for normal formation and/or maintenance of the OPL. Whether this is because the ribbon synapses fail to form or because they degenerate after formation is currently being examined.
The defect in the nob mouse is now known to involve the nyx gene, which produces the nyctalopin protein.49
Although the mechanism of action of nyctalopin is unknown at present, electrophysiological studies of nob mice indicate that the defect is most likely postsynaptic to the photoreceptors.27
In nob mice, the OPL appears normal,27
as do the ribbon synapses.49
The OPL is also preserved in two lines of mutant mice in which the bipolar cell response has been inactivated by loss of either the mGluR6 receptor41
or the G0 protein42
involved in the postreceptoral response to glutamate. These data indicate that activation of the bipolar cell transduction cascade is not required for normal synapse formation and maintenance. The absence of 1F in the photoreceptor terminals of the CNS-ß2–null mice indicates that release of glutamate from the photoreceptor terminals is most likely absent, and this release may be critical for normal ribbon synapse formation and/or maintenance. Alternatively, the presence of a specific 1F isoform on the photoreceptor cell bodies12
may be important in regulation of gene expression of key proteins involved in synapse formation. An example of such a molecule is agrin, whose expression in the motor neurons is required for synaptogenesis at the neuromuscular junction.50
It is also possible that L-type VDCC-mediated calcium entry into the photoreceptor terminal may be required for synapse formation. Finally, there is evidence that several proteins bind to VDCCs,16
raising the possibility that the physical presence of the channel may be required for formation and/or maintenance of the ribbon synapse.
In summary, we have shown that expression of the ß2 subunit of VDCCs in the retina is required for normal function. The ERG data indicate that studies of the CNS-ß2–null mouse may provide insights into the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying CSNB2. In addition, it is of interest to determine whether mutations in this gene produce an autosomal recessive form of CSNB2. Based on our data, we predict that patients with CSNB2 who carry 1F mutations and 1F-null mice (when they become available) will both have structural abnormalities of the OPL. The availability of the CNS-ß2–null mice will provide a valuable resource for understanding the mechanism of formation and/or maintenance of ribbon synapses and will provide a model to evaluate possible therapeutic strategies for CSNB2.
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Acknowledgements |
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Footnotes |
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Submitted for publication October 5, 2001; revised December 26, 2001; accepted January 8, 2002.
Commercial relationships policy: N.
The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. This article must therefore be marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. 
1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Corresponding author: Ronald G. Gregg, Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Louisville, 319 Abraham Flexner Way, Louisville, KY 40202; ron.gregg{at}louisville.edu.
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References |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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1-subunit gene in Xp11.23 cause incomplete X-linked congenital stationary night blindness Nat Genet 19,264-267[Medline][Order article via Infotrieve]
1F calcium channel subunit in the rat retina Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 42,2414-24181F calcium channel subunit by photoreceptors in the rat retina Mol Vis 7,202-209available at http://www.molvis.org/molvis/v7/p202/[Medline][Order article via Infotrieve]
subunit Nat Genet 19,340-347[Medline][Order article via Infotrieve]
subunit genes on chromosome 19q13.4: evolution and expression profile of the subunit gene family Genomics 71,339-350[Medline][Order article via Infotrieve]
1 subunit and eliminates excitation-contraction coupling Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93,13961-139661 subunit of the dihydropyridine receptor of skeletal muscle BMC Physiol 1,8[Medline][Order article via Infotrieve]
o J Neurosci 20,9053-90581 subunit contains an endoplasmic reticulum retention signal antagonized by the ß subunit Neuron 25,177-190[Medline][Order article via Infotrieve]
1A-1E) mRNA in rat retina Brain Res Mol Brain Res 55,209-220[Medline][Order article via Infotrieve]
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K. A. Wycisk, B. Budde, S. Feil, S. Skosyrski, F. Buzzi, J. Neidhardt, E. Glaus, P. Nurnberg, K. Ruether, and W. Berger Structural and Functional Abnormalities of Retinal Ribbon Synapses due to Cacna2d4 Mutation. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., August 1, 2006; 47(8): 3523 - 3530. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Bjartmar, A. D. Huberman, E. M. Ullian, R. C. Renteria, X. Liu, W. Xu, J. Prezioso, M. W. Susman, D. Stellwagen, C. C. Stokes, et al. Neuronal pentraxins mediate synaptic refinement in the developing visual system. J. Neurosci., June 7, 2006; 26(23): 6269 - 6281. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Maeda, J. Lem, K. Palczewski, and F. Haeseleer A Critical Role of CaBP4 in the Cone Synapse Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., November 1, 2005; 46(11): 4320 - 4327. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F. Mansergh, N. C. Orton, J. P. Vessey, M. R. Lalonde, W. K. Stell, F. Tremblay, S. Barnes, D. E. Rancourt, and N. T. Bech-Hansen Mutation of the calcium channel gene Cacna1f disrupts calcium signaling, synaptic transmission and cellular organization in mouse retina Hum. Mol. Genet., October 15, 2005; 14(20): 3035 - 3046. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Hemara-Wahanui, S. Berjukow, C. I. Hope, P. K. Dearden, S.-B. Wu, J. Wilson-Wheeler, D. M. Sharp, P. Lundon-Treweek, G. M. Clover, J.-C. Hoda, et al. A CACNA1F mutation identified in an X-linked retinal disorder shifts the voltage dependence of Cav1.4 channel activation PNAS, May 24, 2005; 102(21): 7553 - 7558. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J.-C. Hoda, F. Zaghetto, A. Koschak, and J. Striessnig Congenital Stationary Night Blindness Type 2 Mutations S229P, G369D, L1068P, and W1440X Alter Channel Gating or Functional Expression of Cav1.4 L-type Ca2+ Channels J. Neurosci., January 5, 2005; 25(1): 252 - 259. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. A. Van Epps, M. Hayashi, L. Lucast, G. W. Stearns, J. B. Hurley, P. De Camilli, and S. E. Brockerhoff The Zebrafish nrc Mutant Reveals a Role for the Polyphosphoinositide Phosphatase Synaptojanin 1 in Cone Photoreceptor Ribbon Anchoring J. Neurosci., October 6, 2004; 24(40): 8641 - 8650. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. X. Takahashi, J. Miriyala, and H. M. Colecraft Membrane-associated guanylate kinase-like properties of {beta}-subunits required for modulation of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels PNAS, May 4, 2004; 101(18): 7193 - 7198. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. L. Batten, Y. Imanishi, T. Maeda, D. C. Tu, A. R. Moise, D. Bronson, D. Possin, R. N. Van Gelder, W. Baehr, and K. Palczewski Lecithin-retinol Acyltransferase Is Essential for Accumulation of All-trans-Retinyl Esters in the Eye and in the Liver J. Biol. Chem., March 12, 2004; 279(11): 10422 - 10432. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. E. McRory, J. Hamid, C. J. Doering, E. Garcia, R. Parker, K. Hamming, L. Chen, M. Hildebrand, A. M. Beedle, L. Feldcamp, et al. The CACNA1F Gene Encodes an L-Type Calcium Channel with Unique Biophysical Properties and Tissue Distribution J. Neurosci., February 18, 2004; 24(7): 1707 - 1718. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Baumann, A. Gerstner, X. Zong, M. Biel, and C. Wahl-Schott Functional Characterization of the L-type Ca2+ Channel Cav1.4{alpha}1 from Mouse Retina Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., February 1, 2004; 45(2): 708 - 713. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. L. Ball, D. Bardenstein, and K. N. Alagramam Assessment of Retinal Structure and Function in Ames Waltzer Mice Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., September 1, 2003; 44(9): 3986 - 3992. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Koschak, D. Reimer, D. Walter, J.-C. Hoda, T. Heinzle, M. Grabner, and J. Striessnig Cav1.4{alpha}1 Subunits Can Form Slowly Inactivating Dihydropyridine-Sensitive L-Type Ca2+ Channels Lacking Ca2+-Dependent Inactivation J. Neurosci., July 9, 2003; 23(14): 6041 - 6049. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. G. Gregg, S. Mukhopadhyay, S. I. Candille, S. L. Ball, M. T. Pardue, M. A. McCall, and N. S. Peachey Identification of the Gene and the Mutation Responsible for the Mouse nob Phenotype Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., January 1, 2003; 44(1): 378 - 384. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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). Results for the other ß mutant mice are within or above the 95% confidence interval for control mice (dashed lines). (D) Comparison of dark-adapted ERG waveforms for representative nob (thick traces) and CNS-ß2–null (thin traces) mice. At each stimulus intensity (-0.9–1.0 log sec · cd/m2) responses of CNS-ß2–null mice included a low-amplitude, slow, positive wave that was absent in nob mice. Amplifier band-pass: 0.01 to 1000 Hz. (B, C) (
) CNS-ß1 null; (
) ß3 null; (
) ß4 null.
